Enlightenment philosopher Essay Example for Free

Enlightenment philosopher probeJohn rune (1632-1704) was an Enlightenment philosopher. Some authors define him as the philosopher of freedom and the father of English empiricism and liberalism. His ideas and concepts about social structure, social consent and human natural rights determined development of political philosophy and republican democracy. John Locke was an Oxford scholar. His teachers were famous British scientists including chemist Robert Boyle who probably taught him about atomism. John Locke was medical researcher and physician, philosopher and pedagogue, economist and ideologist for a revolutionary movement. His career was associated with name of the First Earl of Shaftesbury who was a Lord-Chancellor of England. When Locke emigrated to the Continental Europe he studied Cartesian philosophy in France and become acquainted with William of Orange who later became English King. Locke came back to England only in 1689 and took up many official posts but devote muc h more time to his scientific studies. Contemporaries knew Locke as an economic writer and opposition political activist. Locke was an ideologue of constitutional monarchy and division of powers.He was an opponent of theories of divine origin of the royal power. He was a friend of Isaac Newton and Robert Boyle and an early member of the Royal Society. The principles of Lockes philosophy were the ideological basement for Great French and American Revolution. John Locke together with Francis Bacons was a founder of empiricism theory. He assumed that human assessment at the birth is like blanc paper and only experiences through trials and errors form ideas and knowledge. This theory was described in Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding and had impact on the development of behaviorism.Lock started to write his main work Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1671, but published it only in 1690. Why he wrote it? Essay present the fundamental principles of his philosophy, its the culmination of his reflection on the origins of human knowledge. Essay contains of four books Of indwelling notions, Of ideas, Of words and Of knowledge and probability. This philosophical treatise is written in archaic style but it still easy to read because of the use of dialogue form and clear argumentation. Locke devoted much of the Essay to an extended argument that human ideas and understanding are ultimately derived from experience.Before scientists suggested that some ideas could be innate. Actually, Locke proposed new theory of knowledge. Essay is an answer to the question Where do we get ideas which are the content of our knowledge? The commencement ceremony chapter of the first book is named as No innate high-risk Principles. It consists of twenty eights paragraphs. The name of chapter reflects its content. The chapter is opened with handling how men, barely by the use of their natural facilities, may attain to all the knowledge they have without the help of any inn ate impressions.Locke wrote about the importance of speculative and practical principles and gave examples of them to show that universal content proves nothing innate. He used humor to show that nothing on the mind is naturally imprinted when sing about children understanding. To show impossibility of innate concepts and sensations he used dialectic that helped reader to understand that only experience could generate ideas. Just some examples of his logic. In the paragraphs 6-12 he explained that if all people have innate ideas but later they will come to know things upon the use of own reason then innateness is loosing its sense.He wrote about peculiarities of childs mind after they come to the use of reason, those superior general abstract ideas are not framed in the mind, about which those general maxims are, which are mistaken for innate principles, but are indeed discoveries made, and verities introduced, and brought into the mind by the same way, and discovered by the same steps, as several early(a) propositions, which nobody has ever so extravagant as to suppose innate In 15th section of the chapter author outlines his theory of knowledge origin.He showed the limn of new theory and how it could be applied to the particular and general ideas, to the memory, names, abstraction and language. He noted that universal concepts came from self-evidence, not innateness (Ch. 1, 18) and that less general ideas (he called them propositions) are cognise before. universal maxims. He insists that theory of innate ideas is fruitless because innateness cannot be applied to mathematics and other complicated fields of human knowledge. In 24-27th sections he wrote that ideas cannot be innate because they are not universally assented to.In the last paragraph of the chapter Locke wrote Upon the whole matter, I cannot see any ground to think speculative Maxims innate since they are not universally assented to and the assent they so generally find is no other than what several propositions, not allowed to be innate, equally partake in with them and since the assent that is given them is produced another way, and comes not from natural inscription, as I doubt not but to make appear in the following Discourse. And if these first principles of knowledge and science are found not to be innate, no other speculative maxims can (I suppose), with better right pretend to be so. Locke is a propagator of ideas that abstract speculative principle cannot be innate. He attacked the theory that human mind is born knowing certain things. It was revolutionary for the late seventeen century and John Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding have had great impact on the history of philosophy and society. His studies of the nature and grounds of knowledge specially with reference to its limits and validity and his polemics with adherents of stagnant views on the nature of knowledge stimulated development not only of epistemology but all fields of science.Lockes i deas played at least some part in the formation of revolutionary thought in France and American colonies. Of course, not only Essay Concerning Human Understanding influenced on social history of those and many other countries but this trait liberated mind of other researchers.References1. Essay Concerning Human Understanding http//oregonstate. edu/instruct/phl302/texts/locke/locke1/Book1a. htmlChapter%20I 2. Johne Lock Wikipedia on-line http//en. wikipedia. org/wiki/John_Locke 3. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy http//plato. stanford. edu/entries/locke

The Philosophical Dictionary by Voltaire Essay Example for Free

The Philosophical Dictionary by Voltaire EssayThe Enlightenwork forcet and the values it promoted are really nought less than the infant version of twenty first century America. Its emphasis on reason, repositiondom of speech, religion, and assembly, and its desire to secularize government all appear in the Bill of Rights and re picture the core beliefs which book been shaping U.S. culture for over two hundred years. Voltaire, a leader among the French philosophes, embodies much of the depth purpose in his collection of essay entitled Philosophical Dictionary. Voltaire was overwhelmingly concerned with religious and ethical issues. His belief that spirituality was a private matter apparently didnt correspond with the norms of the day. Particularly unreceptive was the church which more times than not was the chief target of Voltaires criticism. The church had long wielded great power in Europe, and the ethical motive which it claimed to support were often overshadowed by an obsession with ensuring its own theological proclamations were honored. Voltaire was quick to exploit this hypocrisy, and it inspired him to come up with his own philosophy on moral philosophy and the role of the church.Far from being an atheist which he considered a bold and misguided scholar, Voltaire believed in an eternal, supreme, intelligent being (208) and thought religion was a nice thing in a civilized society (56). However, what he hated was religious fanaticism, and it was something he saw all too often. He saw religion, far-off from being a beneficial food turning into poison in infected brains (203). He saw men who backed madness with murder and men who killed for jockey of god (202). And he saw this happening all throughout the church. If this was the effect religion would have on society, if it would only create an epidemic illness, then pull down atheism would be better, for at least atheists wouldnt kill those who thought differently than them. For Voltaire, a man who championed reason and empiricism, fanaticism had only one cure free thought.Reason, Voltaire believed, was an ability which God gave all men as an instrument to guide moral behavior. Thus, any reasonable man who studied theBible would know that human being killing was something God always despised. The fanatics then were without excuse as enemies of reason and of God (28). Voltaire believed these people, the persecutors, and the theological dis borderes they created to be humanitys worst problem. Because of mans inherent desire to dominate others, a just society led by religious leaders was impossible. In order to find the good and the true, law must rule the land and men must be allowed to express themselves without the fear of punishment.At the conclusion to his essay on Certainty, Voltaire provides two poignant insights As for me, who have undertaken this little Dictionary to seat questions, I am far from being certain (107). In a place and time where the public was exp ected to play the role of children and acquiesce to everything put before them, Voltaire, first, wanted people to think, ask questions, and arrive at their own conclusions Natural law permits everyone to believe what he pleases (88). Secondly, Voltaire recognized the limits of the human mind, that only so many questions contained mathematically certain answers. In one of his essays, he challenged the church with that fact I could compose for you a folio volume of questions to which you would have to say only with four words I do not know? (74). To Voltaire it was clear enough.Not all things were in mans grasp, and it was an individual choice as to how to swop with those areas. These two points capture the grand message Voltaire sacrificed his life to spread. Religious faith will always be just that faith. Yet, the most atrocious acts of evil have been committed when people assume that their own faiths are universal truths. This is the mistake Voltaire most wanted to discourage. In stead, he proposed a society where a secular tree trunk governed by laws derived from reason and permitted its citizens to freely exercise their natural rights to free speech and religion.The Age of the Enlightenment saw many of the events which have had the greatest impact present society. Voltaire and his contemporaries introduced the ideas of free speech, religion, assembly, and press. They openly questioned the established authorities and influenced the revolutions in both England and France. Today, most countries in the Western World reap thebenefits of such thinkers and the changes they introduced, embracing the Enlightenment culture and its love for secular leadership.

Effect of Peers and Gender on Risk Taking Decisions

Effect of Peers and G blockadeer on Risk fetching DecisionsThe Effect of Peers and Gender on Risk Taking Decisions on Breaking the Rules of College StudentsFrances Mae H. BalandanJaymie Aileen T. HuangPatricia Audrey D. LansangLouie Belle M. RegenteDorothy Joy S. SyAbstractKeywords peers, sexs, rules, risk-takingThe researchers would like to cope if clustering and gender affects the finis making of college savants that involves risk. Clustering refers to the break outicipants in whether they are classified in a company of friends or acting alone in a web site on making a unfit behavior. The typical finding is that, on the average, subjects (group) shift toward greater risk that is, the group leave behind most likely decide on the risky option than an individualistic deciding on his or her own. This is the prototype of the group-induced shift toward risk, or simply the risky shift (Clark, 1973). There are theories, such as the social comparison theory, that emphasizes that people with in a group decides several(predicate)ly than people in isolation (Levinger and Schneider, 1969).In terms of gender differences, male segmenticipants are more probable to engage in risky behaviors than female participants. In social decision making, males perceive little(prenominal) risk and are more likely to engage in greater risk. Boys risk judgments were signicantly predicted by their ratings of injury severity (Harris, C. R. Jenkins, H., 2006). Female participants are less probable to engage in risk behaviors in the domains of health, gambling and recreational activities. Females judge the activities as less enjoyable than males (Harris, C. R. Jenkins, H., 2006).In terms of group differences, examples would be that couples on average are risk-averse in their choices, and that risk preferences are less diverse crosswise groups than across individuals. Groups are more risk-averse in lotteries with low probabilities of winning the largest payoffs, but less risk-ave rse when these probabilities are high (He, H., Martinson. P., Sutter, M., 2011).The gender is a determinant on risky behaviors. Generally, males withstand more risks. But in several(prenominal) cases, females unravel to make riskier decisions. A study showed that males tend to make riskier decision in terms of finances enchantment females take more social risks ( custodyon, 2011).Risk attitudes expressed by groups and individuals dier. In most choice problems involving a safe and a risky option groups tend to take more risk (risky shifts) (Stoner, 1960).Further studies have shown that men prefer their decisions to be implemented as decisions in the group, while women are less likely to so. Risk attitudes in the individual decision-making task have no significant act on the females decision, but have a positive effect for males (Gurdal, M.Y., 2010).Other studies have also shown that adolescents are likely to do risky decision making as compared to adults, because they are prone to the influence of the peers and they tend to con fix. They do not want to feel left out because they want to be part of the group, and adolescents are more easily convinced towards risky choices. This not applicable for adults, because they are more mature and self-reliant meaning they can do it independently without relying on the others help. (Gardner and Steinberg, 2005)The researchers would like to know the following Does gender affect the risky decision making of an individual? Does clustering affect the risky decision making of an individual?In this research, the researchers generated four hypothesesIf a group of students are exposed to a risk-taking situation on breaking the rules, then the group consensus leave behind be riskier than the average of the initial individual decisions.If an individual student is exposed to a risk-taking situation on breaking the rules, then s/he forget take on a lower risk than the average of the group of students.If a male student is expos ed to a risk-taking situation on breaking the rules, then he lead take on a higher risk than female students whether be in group, pair or individual decision.If a female student is exposed to a risk-taking situation on breaking the rules, then he pass on take on a lower risk than male students whether be in group, pair or individual decision.The purpose of the study is to know if the inclusion of a person in a group would influence his/her making risky decisions and to know if the gender of a person matters in making risky decisions. This research will be a break finished for parents and counselors in dealing with their son/daughters and clients in terms of risk-taking decision making on breaking the rules. This research is specified to know how and when college students are more inclined to do riskier behaviors. This can help prevent the circumstances and fatal effects to take place.This research will also be helpful in terms of being a bran-new discovery as it will be set in t he Philippines. Most researches are conducted to study western participants and graduate students. In the groups study, we will concentrate on college students. The feasible difference may lay in the different religion and culture that we have from the western countries. The different concepts the Filipinos have as a community, the different beliefs and the different comprehensions may influence the results of this experimental research.MethodsParticipantsThe sample consisted of 200 undergraduate Lasallian students, men and women of ages 18 and above. The participants will be chosen via random sampling by inquire some students for a few minutes of their time to participate in this experiment. Those willing to participate will be asked to fill up the consent form and log-in sheet before starting the experiment.Research DesignBetween-subjects mixed design will be used. The independent shiftings are college students. The levels are individual, and group. The dependent variable is d ecision upon result of risk taking.ProcedureParticipants were gathered via random sampling and participated in the experiment It will conducted in a laboratory and done in individually A participant will be asked to read risky situations, and be asked what are the chances that they will do the risky behavior (breaking the rule). The participant will be randomly placed in a risky situation where s/he will is alone or with his/her peers. In this experiment, we will amount of money the difference of the participants decision on whether they will break the rule if they are hypothetically with their group or acting alone.ReferencesClark, R. D., III, Crockett, W. H., Archer, R. L. Risk-as-value hypothesis The relationship between perception of self, others and the risky shift. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology ,1971,20, 425-429.Gardner, M. Steinberg, L. (2005) Peer Influence on Risk Taking, Risk Preference, and Risky Decision Making in Adolescence and ascribable date An Ex perimental Study. Developmental Psychology. Retrieved from http//uwf.edu/s mathews/documents/peerroleinrisktakinggardnerandsteinberg.pdfGurdal, M.Y.(2010) Deciding to Decide Gender, Leadership and Risk-Taking in Groups. Retrieved from http//eaf.ku.edu.tr/sites/eaf.ku.edu.tr/files/erf_wp_1028.pdfHarris, C. R. Jenkins, H. (2006). Gender Differences in Risk Assessment Why do Women Take Fewer Risks than Men? Judgment and Decision Making, 2006, 1(1), 4863, Retrieved from http//journal.sjdm.org/jdm06016.pdfHe, H., Martinson, P., Sutter, M. (2011).Group Decision Making Under Risk An Experiment with Student Couples Retrieved from https//gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/28122/1/gupea_2077_28122_1.pdfHe, H., Martinson. P., Sutter, M. (2011). The Influence of Religious Priming on abnegation and Risk Taking http//archives.ubalt.edu/ub_archives/inspired_discoveries/pdf/ADAMDspFINAL.pdfJiang F. X., Jiang, Z. Kim. K. A., Zhang, M. (2013). Family-firm risk-taking does religion matter? http//www.l ingnan.net/seminar/upload/file/20130922/20130922103555225522.pdfLevinger, G. and Scheinder, D. J. (1969) Test of the risk is value hypothesis, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 11, 165-169Menon, D. (2011, July 25). PRESS RELEASE. Association for psychological Science RSS. Retrieved January 19, 2014, from http//www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/news/releases/who-takes-risks.htmlStoner (1961) A comparison of individual and group decisions under risk, unpublished thesis, MIT School of Management.InstrumentsIndividualInstructions Read each situation carefully. Rate yourself to how much you are willing to do the express situation, with 1 being the lowest and 10 being the highest.1. You noticed that your teacher in your math class rarely checks the attendance. Everyone also noticed that some of your classmates are usually absent and cutting their class because the profs style of teaching is mundane. You sometimes ditch class with your classmates, but you noticed that you already exceeded the maximum number of absences allowed. You cannot cut the class more than 5 times. You are still tempted to cut the class, because you know that the professor rarely checks attendance. The risk is that the professor might have a roll call, thus leading you to a impuissance grade at the end of the term.The chances are __ in 10 that I will cut that class.0123456789102. You are required to write a group research paper for an English class. The take must be new and something relevant to your course. You must contribute to writing the research paper. The paper is almost finished except for one significant part of the paper. The deadline is fast approaching you only have until 10pm of that night to finish the paper. You are tempted to plagiarize a portion of someone elses work by claiming the separate of the persons paper as your own without citation. The risk here is with rise of sophisticated anti-plagiarism software free for use on the Internet, there will be a cha nce of being caught with the act of plagiarism that will merit a flunk grade.The chances are __ in 10 that I will plagiarize, copy a portion of that persons work and not cite this persons work.0123456789103. You are a part of a artifice chain (a group of students who pass the answers of one to another during a quiz). There are ten of you in the artifice chain a class. The teacher commonly sleeps during examination, but he records the class on his phone. After two quizzes of not getting caught cheating, despite the presence of the phone, on the third exam, one of your cheating buddies was caught by the recording camera of the phone. He was the only one who was caught, and only received a warning and a zero on the exam instead of failing the entire course with a disciplinary demerit. The fourth exam is in a few minutes, and the only way to pass is through cheating. You are in desperate need of a high grade. With the fact that out of three exams, one out of the ten of you was only caught cheating, and that the teacher may be stricter payable to catching one. What are the chances of you still partaking in the groups cheating activities or abstain from it?The chances are __ in 10 that I will contact in the cheating chain.0 1 2345678910GroupInstructions Read each situation carefully. Rate yourself to how much you are willing to do the stated situation, with 1 being the lowest and 10 being the highest.1. You and your four friends noticed that your teacher in your math class rarely checks the attendance. Everyone also noticed that some of your classmates are usually absent and cutting their class because the professors style of teaching is mundane. You sometimes ditch class with your classmates, but you noticed that you already exceeded the maximum number of absences allowed. You cannot cut the class more than 5 times. You and your four friends are still tempted to cut the class, because you know that the professor rarely checks attendance. The risk is that the professor might have a roll call, thus leading you to a failing grade at the end of the term.The chances are __ in 10 that I will cut that class.0123456789102. You and your seven friends are required to write a group research paper for an English class. The topic must be new and something relevant to your course. Each member of the group must contribute to writing the research paper. The paper is almost finished except for one significant part of the paper. The deadline is fast approaching you only have until 10pm of that night to finish the paper. Your group is tempted to plagiarize a portion of someone elses work by claiming the split up of the persons paper as your own without citation. The risk here is with rise of sophisticated anti-plagiarism software free for use on the Internet, there will be a chance of being caught with the act of plagiarism that will merit a failing grade.The chances are __ in 10 that I will plagiarize, copy a portion of that persons work and not cite t his persons work.0123456789103. You are a part of a cheating chain (a group of students who pass the answers of one to another during a quiz). There are ten of you in the cheating chain a class. The teacher unremarkably sleeps during examination, but he records the class on his phone. After two quizzes of not getting caught cheating, despite the presence of the phone, on the third exam, one of your cheating buddies was caught through the recording camera of the phone. He was the only one who was caught, and only received a warning and a zero on the exam instead of failing the entire course with a disciplinary demerit. The fourth exam is in a few minutes, and the only way to pass is through cheating. You are in desperate need of a high grade. With the fact that out of three exams, one out of the ten of you was only caught cheating, and that the teacher may be stricter due to catching one. Will the cheating chain be active during the fourth exam?The chances are __ in 10 that I will p artake in the cheating chain.0 1 2345678910

Cultural Changes That Influenced 20th Century Aesthetics Cultural Studies Essay

Cultural Changes That Influenced 20th Century Aesthetics Cultural Studies EssayAmong the sociable and cultural highlights of Twentieth Century should be noted the loss of optimism, a sureness that since eighteenth centurys Enlightenment relied on the values of reason and progress. At the resembling quantify, a cultural relativism extends, by which Western man no lifelong sees himself as having a superior socialization. A third transformation factor is the exit of mass culture, a product of mass media and of the progressive availability of leisure time. This historical context led to a new nontextual matteristic sensibility. European culture began exploring novel ways, looking for more modern forms of expression appropriate to the times. Because of the profound crisis that took place at the time, the ideas and society changed, and myriad of machination get goingistic trends were developed. You could no longer give tongue to of an era, a movement or a tendency to guide the e ntire artistic production, but of a multiplicity of styles that increased over time.The loss of optimism and confidence in the values of reason and progress was ascribable to the release that society dated from traditional values, which began at the academy, and like every human release it had its origins as a liberation of popular opinion whose leader was Nietzsche who denounced rationalism and ethnocentrism as unfit values of a society in decline. This shift meant the development of art as a search to find its own essence and au accordinglyticity in opposition to the established canons. Art refrained from representing experiences and the objects of experience as it was used before, especially during the love affair in a way that used to create human-like or more precisely Western-like representations, the new art desisted of such expressions and thus it became sort of dehumanized. Art looked for a lost authenticity of its own and it succeed, it became like itself.During this pe riod art ceases to be affected by the values of Romanticism, beginning to base its work according to the Nietzchean thought of art as a representation of trutha theory rooted in a buy the farm to the ancient classic conception of tragical insight as Nietzsche conceived it, a theory of a performative art that would deliver a Dionysian interpretation of the world and would reveal the autogenerative fountain of existence and return art to the role it possessed in German idealist philosophy -the role of providing a doorway onto ontological truth there are this instant artistic accomplishments that follow the route which Nietzsche would have laid out had he composed a purely estheticals volume in the last eld of his life. (Ulfers Cohen, 2000)Popular concepts like progress or rationalist visions rooted in common sense came to be regarded as naive by critics and artists who came towards a excogitation in itself artistic, the new art is an artistic art (Ortega y Gasset, 1968), which means that instead of representing human experiences as we come to find them, art will strike representations of the genuine traits that follow from an effort for catching what really happens, thus art becomes like itself. Because this selfness of art has been solely understood and contemp youngd by scholars, critics, artists and a few followers, art has vanished from the domain of common people, becoming exclusive. With minimal art, conceptual art, ephemeral art, the anti-art, a dematerialization of art is spoken just about, an aesthetic of transparency, of disappearance and disincarnating, but in reality it is the aesthetic that has materialized everywhere under operational form. Thats why, moreover, that art has been forced to be minimal, to interpret its own demise. (Baudrillard, 1993)According to the study of Baudrillard the current state of things is after the orgy, where everything has been released, but then has left a void, which is needed to keep the excesses of simulati ons of dreams, situations, images, illusions and fantasies.Characterizing the current state of things, I would say that this is the post-orgy. The orgy is the explosive moment of modernity, that of liberation in all areas. policy-making liberation, sexual liberation, liberation of productive forces, liberation of destructive forces, and liberation of women, of children, of the unconscious impulses, liberation of art. (Baudrillard, 1993)This release refers pilot programly to the liberation of thought as we saw how the philosophic thinking made critics and artists to carry forward their creative activity according to an ideal of authenticity, that is, according to their freedom.Once ethnocentrism was revealed as a fallacy of nineteenth centurys Rationalism, the artists saw that their way of seeing things, the way of the society to which they belonged, was no longer the only canon to perform, emerging the other side in the perception of creators, as unconscious, as indigenous, as w oman and as folly.The emergence of mass culture from the media allowed the liberation of art to become massive in its operation, which generated a trivialization of art that reversed the initial purport for transparency and authenticity to an emptiness of content and an evaluation of art that is not through the critics, but mainly by the securities industry, whether it is a pastiche, if its a neo from each movement, if it says or doesnt say nothing, if whoever creates it or if its just nothing, the only thing that matters is that the market pays for it. At this point it is appropriate to distinguish and to warn of a critique of art that refers to what is not art, as if it was art. By mid-century art began to be valued for the amateur and profane production of dilettante items, artistic according to the propaganda, crossed in its creation by the neoliberal system and so devoid of meaning. So art in itself remains outside of this mass production, it only operates in part due to its own value set in the game, which society learned to appreciate and which is owned for the trade. A recent example of art that remains in its original focus by matching its creation to what is really happening the massification of the artistic operation- are the paintings of Andy Warhol synthesizing popular images as expressions of beauty and authenticity.The progressive availability of leisure time generated by the process of industrialization and the subsequent massification of society helped to ensure a space and time for the individual creation while transforming the leisure time to an experience that was decimated by alienated labor, with no broad access to the insights and knowledge that was being generated in the academy and in the circles of artists and critics, the mass man, the proletarian man only knew about art and took it for his action and enjoyment without having an accurate impression of it, and without really caring for it, he wanted to use it for the same purposes of the market to which he was submitted, namely that art was used and held in ordinary products that entertained the desire for consumerism and the emotionality of the current common man. It would be very different if the leisure time had been exercised as a Dionysian experience. The avant-garde artists who transformed art towards the end of the XIX century have carried out the reassembly of the heroic and tragic nature of the ancient Greek creators.It sounds as if the emergence of mass culture made this release of the arts accessible to all, but rather the case is that the value placed by the market on the production of art has generated a production of works that lack of critical review since it merely responds to the purist measures of the economic system. In modern, Western societies, according to Bourdieu, the line of culture likewise operates according to a disguised logic of deferred interest. The market of symbolic goods assigns cultural value to those works, and those aut hors, that defer immediate returns high art is tell apart from low culture with the formers apparent distance from or denial of temporal rewards. In The Rules of Art (1992), Bourdieus most sustained examination of literature, he shows how the novelist Gustave Flaubert, among other late nineteenth-century writers, sought to constitute a literary field whose autonomy was defined by its rupture with the economic order (121). With the triumph of modernism, literature (and art) would no longer be subject either to financial patronage or to the emerging mass market. (Beasley-Murray, 2004). Accordingly, art disappears from the common domain, and this disappearance reaches its antithetical expression in the work of Warhol, as referring to the alternative destination in which the masses of humanity would reach the learning and enthusiasm for works of art without that their approach has been crossed by the created urgencies and obligations of a business or economic system, therefore a mass p roduction of artworks by a genuine and autonomous view, generating a collective exaltation and inspiration, so as to the mood of the avant-garde.The cultural changes that occurred towards the end of the nineteenth century have a thoughtful, academic, philosophical and traditional source. The thoughts generated from that source have a countercultural nature as they opposed to the established values. The criterion of truth and authenticity became a basis for the work of artists and critics. The masses turned out to be excluded from the proper creation or contemplation of artworks, which became distinctive of a circle of artists and critics. Valuation of art by the market so as to achieve its operation and claim its ownership, but without achieving a valid operation, as a result a mere consumption, abandonment, and indifference. Relevance of art and artists in that they initially focus on that hint of inspiration rejection of the bias way to artistic creation provided by modern thin king, and that this momentum of genuineness can turn on the same common process that overlooks art at present, so that to achieve its representation.

Neuroimaging Findings in Late Infantile GM1

Neuroimaging Findings in Late Infantile GM1GangliosidosisSummary Late infantile GM1 gangliosidosis is an extremely archaic metabolous affection with clinical features of seizure and progressive motor and mental retardation without facial dysmorphism or visceral organomegaly. We report the CT and MR imaging findings in superstar infant, which included abnormalities of the cerebral cortex, snow-clad field, and deep nuclei.GM1 gangliosidosis is a r be lysosomal storage dis- ease characterized by a deficiency in the activity of lysosomal galactosidase, which results in change magnitude accumulation of GM1 ganglioside and asialo-GA1 in the read/write head and of oligosaccharide in the visceral organs (1, 2). Patients with infantile GM1 gangliosidosis usu- ally select dysmorphic facial features, motor and men- tal retardation, seizures, and hepatosplenomegaly (2). The late infantile form of this disorder is extremely r are and has no clinical features of facial dysmor- phism or vi sceral organomegaly (1).Case ReportAn 11-month-old girl, the product of an uncomplicated full-term pregnancy, presented with complex febrile upthrow during an episode of upper respiratory infection. Physical ex- amination at first admission showed a hypotonic infant with macrocephaly (97 percentile), normal facial features, and psychomotor retardation. hyperactive reflexes and augmented startle response to noise were present. The abdomen was soft without hepatosplenomegaly. Examination of the eyes revealed a normal clear lens, dilatation of the pupil without light reflex in the right eye, and mild dilatation of the pupil with sluggish light reflex in the left eye. Fundoscopy showed no cherry-redspots at the maculae. lacking(predicate) galactosidase activity and normal hexosaminidase, and glucosidase activity on lysosomal enzyme assay in well-bred skin fibroblasts were documented at the patients second admission 3 months later for clonic-tonic seizures during another episode of acute upper respiratory infection.Radiologic investigation included chest radiography ( in any case covering the abdomen), CT, and MR imaging, all of which were d one(a) on initial admission and again at follow-up. A bone survey was not performed owing to unremarkable somatic manifesta- tions. A CT s gutter of the brain at age 11 months showed in- creased attenuation of the bilateral thalami (Fig 1A). MR examinations at 11 and 14 months of age showed hyperintensity of the thalami on T1-weighted images (Fig 1B) whereas, on T2-weighted images, the signal intensity of the thalami was change magnitude (Fig 1C). The white affair myelination was mark- edly delayed, with only the splenium of the corpus callosum being myelinated and no interval improvement in myelination noted at the second MR study (Fig 1D).DiscussionGM1 gangliosidosis is a rare inborn error of metab- olism caused by a deficiency of galactosidase activity resulting in failure of catalyzing cleavage of termi- nal link gal actose from substrates, such as GM1 ganglioside, asialo-GM1, lactosylceramide, galactose- containing oligosaccharides, and mucopolysacchar- ides. The abnormally hoard substances in the lysosomes of the affected cells in the CNS are mainly GM1 ganglioside and its asialo derivative GA1 as well as other minor glycolipids and glycopeptides. Visceral storage with oligosaccharides is variable quantity and may cause organgomegaly.Three cases of GM1 gangliosidosis, classified by age of onset, have been describe (1, 3, 4). Infantile GM1 gangliosidosis ( showcase 1) is the most common and se- vere form, with clinical features of hypotonia, failure to thrive in the neonatal period, and clonic-tonic seizure activity. Coarse facial features, frontal boss- ing, dysostosis multiplex, hepatosplenomegaly, and hazy cornea may be present or become apparent in the first twelvemonth of life (2). The late infantile or juvenile form (type 2) begins with progressive mental and motor retardation between 1 and 5 years of age. Seizures are common, and spastic tetraplegia devel- ops, with cerebellar and extrapyramidal signs. Decer- ebrate rigidity follows, and death occurs between 3 and 10 years of age, usually precipitated by recurrent bronchopneumonia. Dysmorphic facial features, hep- atosplenomegaly, corneal changes, and bony abnor- malities are usually lacking, and, when present, are due to a mild degree or absence of oligosaccharide accumulation. Cerebral GM1 ganglioside storage is also less severe in type 2 than in type 1 disease (1, 2).A, Cranial CT scan at age 11 months shows increased attenuation of the thala- mus and decreased attenuation of the basal ganglia, which were isointense with adjacent white upshot.B, T1-weighted axial MR image (600/20/2 TR/TE/excitations) obtained at the same time shows increased signal inten- sity of the thalamus. The white thing my- elination was markedly delayed. Note that only the splenium of the corpus callosum is myelinated.C, Correspondin g axial T2-weighted MR image (2800/90/1) reveals hypodensity of the thalamus and normal signal intensity of the basal ganglia. The cerebrum showed almost no myelination of the white matter except the splenium of the corpus callo- sum.D, Follow-up T2-weighted MR image at 14 months of age shows persistent delayed myelination of the white matter. Note that no cortical atrophy is seen at this stage.Children or adults with chronic, or type 3, GM1 gan- gliosidoses may have a slowly progressive disorder in which dystonia, dysarthria, ataxia, myoclonus gait dis- orders, and extrapyramidal signs occur (4). pointless changes are minimal. Cherry-red spots at the macu- lae, which are found in about half the patients with type 1 GM1 gangliosidoses, are not seen in patients with type 2 and type 3 disease.The disorder can be diagnosed in several ways, including lysosomal enzyme assay of low galactosidase activity in peripheral leukocytes or cultured skin fibroblasts, detection of abnormal urinary oligosac- charide excretion, and rectal biopsy (2). Prenatal di- agnosis by measurement of enzyme activity in amni- otic silver-tongued and cultivated amniotic fluid cells has also been established (5).Neuropathologic reports on GM1 gangliosidoses have shown diffuse neural storage with ballooning of neuronic cytoplasm in the cerebral and cerebellar cortex, basal ganglia, brain stem, spinal cord, and dorsal root ganglion in type 1 and type 2 forms, and a tendency for selective storage in the basal ganglia with neuronal loss and gliosis in type 3 disease (6, 7). The cerebral white matter is gliotic and there is loss of myelin in type 1 however not in types 2 and 3 GM1 gangli- osidoses.Neuroimaging findings in patients with type 1 GM1 gangliosidoses have been reported only in a few cases. In one case, initial thalamic hyperdensity was found on CT scans and hypointense signal of the thalami was seen on T2-weighted MR images at a later stage (3). Persistent delay in white matter myel ination on serial MR studies has been described in another case (8). In type 3 GM1 gangliosidoses, the symmetrical abnormal signal intensities were more selectively seen in the caudate nucleus and putamen on T2-weighted MR images (9). To our knowledge, neuroimaging findings in type 2 GM1 gangliosidoses have not been reported previously.The CT and MR findings in our case are identical to those reported in patients with Tay-Sachs disease (GM2 gangliosidoses). This may be understood be- cause the structure of gangliosides GM1 and GM2 differs only in the terminal N-acetylgalactosamine, and they are stored together with cholesterol and phospholipid the neuronal staining reactions and ul- trastructure are identical (7). The thalamic hyperden- sity seen on CT scans in Tay-Sachs and Krabbe lyso- somal storage disorders has been presumed to be due to calcification. Calcium deposition in the thalamus can also explain the hyperintense T1 signal and hy- pointense T2 signal on MR images, althoug h frank calcium deposition has not been reported pathologi- cally (10). Other investigators have suggested that secondary lipofuscinosis, resulting in deposits of pigmented degradation products, occurs in the thalami and cause this appearance in GM2 gangliosidoses (11,12). In our case, the CT study showed not only tha- lamic hyperdensity but also hypointensity of the basal ganglia, which were almost isointense with adjacent white matter (Fig 1A). The MR study verified the CT findings of abnormal thalamic attenuation but not the hypointensity of the basal ganglia. MR is the only imaging technique that is capable of demonstrating the arrested myelination of the cerebral white matter in serial examinations (Fig 1C and D).ConclusionAlthough the neuroimaging findings of GM1 gan- gliosidoses are unique in our case, these findings could also be identified in GM2 gangliosidoses and, to some extent, in late-stage Canavan disease. Patients with late-stage Canavan disease may have dense thal- ami on T1-weighted images, as well as white matter necrosis, resulting in cavitation, and brain stem and cerebellar atrophy, which are not observed in GM1. Other neurometabolic diseases that often manifest with macrocephaly include mucopolysaccharidosis and Alexander disease. These disorders have distinct neuroimaging features and they should be distin- guished from GM1. A definite diagnosis of this rare disorder can only be made by obtaining lysosomal enzyme assay results of deficient galactosidase and normal hexosaminidase.References1. Gascon GG, Ozand PT, Erwin RE. GM1 gangliosidosis type 2 in two siblings. J Child Neurol 19927S41S502. Suzuke Y, Sakuraba H, Oshima A. Beta-galactosidase deficiency (beta-galactosidosis) GM1 gangliosidosis and Morquio B disease. In Scriver CR, Beaudet AL, Sly WS, et al, eds. The Metabolic and Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease. New York McGraw-Hill1995278528233. Kobayashi 0, Takashima S. Thalamic hyperdensity on CT in infan- tile GM1-gangliosidosi s. Brain Dev 199416472 4744. Tanaka R, Momoi T, Yoshida A, et al. Type 3 GM1 gangliosidosis clinical and neuroradiological findings in an 11-year-old girl. J Neurol 1995242299 3035. Tasso MJ, Martinez-Gutierrez A, Carrascosa C, et al. GM1-gangli- osidosis presenting as nonimmune hydrops fetalis a case report. J Perinatal Med 199624445 4496. Bieber FR, Mortimer G, Kolodny EH, et al. Pathologic findings in fetal GM1 gangliosidosis. tight Neurol 198643736 7387. Lake B. Lysosomal and peroxisomal disorders. In Graham DI, Lantos PL, eds. Greenfields Neuropathology. 6th ed. London Ar- nold 19978. Kaye EM, Alroy J, Raghavan SS, et al. Dysmyelinogenesis in an animal model of GM1 gangliosidosis. Pediatr Neurol 199282552619. Uyama E, Terasaki T, Watanabe S, et al. Type 3 GM1 gangliosido- sis characteristic magnetic resonance imaging findings correlated with dystonia. Acta Neurol Scand 199286609 61510. Brismar J, Brismar G, Coates R, et al. Increased density of the thalamus on CT scans in pat ients with GM2 gangliosidoses. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 19901112513011. Lowden JA, Callahan JW, Gravel RA, et al. Type 2 GM gangli- osidosis with neuronal ceroid lipofusinosis. Neurology198131719 72412. Stalker HP, Jan BK. Thalamic hyperdensity a previously unre- ported sign of Sandhoff disease. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 198910 S82

Fidel Castro :: essays research papers

Fidel Castro Ruz was born on August 13, 1926 (some sources give 1927), on his familys sugar plantation near Biran, Oriente, Province. His father was an immigrant from Galcia, Spain. He attended good Catholic schools in Santiago de Cuba and Havana, where he took the sparten regime at a Jesuit boarding school, Colegio de Belen. In 1945 he enrolled at the University of Havana, graduating in 1950 with a law degree. In 1948, he married Mirta Diaz-Balart and divorced her in 1954. Their son, Fidel Castro Ruz Diaz-Balart, born in 1949, has served as head of Cubas nuclear energy commission.Fidel Castro Ruz, Cubas enduring "maximum leader," has held power since 1959. He is president (since 1976 formerly prime minister), first secretary of the Cuban Communist party, and commander of the armed forces. His decisions atomic number 18 final on matters of domestic and foreign policy.A member of the social-democratic Orthodoxo party in the late 1940s and 1950s, Castro was an early and voca l opponent of the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista. In 1952, he ran for election to the Cuban House of Representatives. But troops led by Batista halted the election and ended democracy in Cuba. As a impression of Batistas actions, Castro tried to start a revolution against the Batista dictatorship. He eventually succeeded on January 1, 1959 and took control of the Cuban govenment. Castro, who has no rivals for power, demands the absolute loyalty of those around him. As a lawyer by training, Castro led the Cuban Revolution and transformed the island into the first Communist state in the Western Hemisphere. He has been less than successful as an economic policymaker Cuba remains a poor country in debt whose livelihood depended on sugar production and Soviet economic aid -- which was cut make after the demise of the Soviet Union.

Is Learning Invisible to the Learner? :: Education Teaching Learning Essays

Is Learning Invisible to the Learner?Think back to all the things that you knowing during your childhood and see if you remember them? If you do remember them, think about how you learned them. Did you ever realize that the experiences that you encountered would still be with you today? Or did you even so realize that you were learning from the company virtually you.Well, people who get a better understanding of how they learn and who they learn from can become better learners themselves. perhaps if you would have had a better understanding for how you learn and whom you learn from you would have been a better learner. Smith, Golub, and Gardner are three roots who address this issue.Smith is oneness author who says that we learn without realizing were learning. He believes that we learn by the company we keep. This kind of learning puts us in a category of belonging to a club. At the start of our childhood we start to develop an identity through the members of our club. How man y times did you do something because of the actions of others? This is the type of thing that influences us in the way we learn. slice growing up, I mainly stayed around one group of friends. I established an identity through these people and I felt comfortable around them. This group of friends was considered my club. This group of people influenced much of my action whether it was in a positive or negative way. But regardless of how I was being influenced, I was still learning something new. For example, there was once a cactus in my 5th grade classroom that I always wanted to shift. I wanted to touch it because I knew it was sharp and I wanted to see if it would prick me and make me bleed. Now I realize that would have been very dumb because of the action of one of my friends. Unfortunately he decided to touch the cactus for the same reason, only to find out that it had poisonous needles that caused his skin to break out in hives. Luckily I learned from his actions instead of m aking the same mistake. This person along with all the others around me taught me so many different things that I was never even informed of. Did I ever consider that I learned from them?